Novel Coronavirus (covid-19) a Ubiquitous Hazard to Human Health: A Review
Authors
-
DST Sponsored Fish Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir – 190 006 ,IN
Ishtiyaq Ahmad -
DST Sponsored Fish Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir – 190 006 ,INImtiaz Ahmed
-
Department of Zoology, School of Bioengineering & Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara - 144411, Punjab ,INNafiaah Naqash
-
DST Sponsored Fish Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir – 190 006 ,INShahid Mehmood
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18311/jeoh/2020/25381Keywords:
Coronaviruses, COVID-19, Outbreak, Pandemic, VaccineAbstract
Coronavirus (CoV) belongs to the genus beta coronavirus with its high mutation rate within the family Coronoviridae. The virus is extremely transmittable and its pathogenicity caused infection like SARS-CoV-2. An epidemic of this novel coronavirus was first documented in Wuhan, Hubei province of China in December 2019 and is thus called as COVID-19. A series of pneumonia reports were confirmed and now the cases are escalated throughout the world. Although transmission of this virus from animals to humans is rare, however this new strain most likely came from bats and pangolins. COVID-19 has infected more than 4.5 million people (4,543,060) as of May 15th 2020, 09:50 GMT worldwide and rises continuously, caused the death of 303,707 so far. Till date no vaccine is available to combat this dreadful virus. Though, certain antiviral drugs have being assisted against COVID-19, which results some success. With the fast spread all over the world, fear and panic is gripping people around the globe. It leads to social stigma towards affected people and physiologically hurts by creating more fear. Need of the time is the collective efforts of all developed countries along with WHO to fight against this dreadful virus. The frontline clinicians, public health authorities and epidemiologists must need to come together to stop this infection and save the precious lives. Since the present virus is new to science, therefore in this review, an attempt has been made to establish some facts related to this novel coronavirus from the existing literature.
Downloads
Metrics
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Accepted 2020-08-10
Published 2020-12-29
References
Kahn JS, McIntosh K. History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2005; 24: S223–S226. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60
Geller C, Varbanov M, Duval RE. Human coronaviruses: insights into environmental resistance and its influence on the development of new antiseptic strategies. Viruses. 2012; 4: 3044–3068. doi:10.3390/v4113044
de Groot RJ, Baker SC, Baric R, Enjuanes L, Gorbalenya AE, Holmes KV, Perlman S, Poon L, Rottier PJ, Talbot PJ, Woo PC, Ziebuhr J. Family Coronaviridae. In King AM, Lefkowitz E, Adams MJ, Carstens EB, International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, International Union of Microbiological Societies. Virology Division (eds.). Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Oxford: Elsevier. 2011, pp. 806–28. ISBN 978-012-384684-6.
International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (201008-24). "ICTV Master Species List2009”v10” (http:// talk.ictvonline.org/files/ictv_documents/m/msl/1231/ download.aspx) (xls).
Belouzard S, Millet JK, Licitra BN, Whittaker GR. Mechanisms of Coronavirus Cell Entry Mediated
by the Viral Spike Protein. Viruses. 2012; 4: 1011– 1033. doi:10.3390/v4061011
Yang H, Bartlam M, Rao Z. Drug design targeting the main protease, the Achilles' heel of coronaviruses.
Curr Pharm Des. 2006; 12: 4573–90. https://doi.org/10.2174/138161206779010369
Woo PC, Huang Y, Lau SK, Yuen KY. Coronavirus genomics and bioinformatics analysis. Viruses. 2010; 2:1804–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/v2081803
Sexton NR, Smith EC, Blanc H, Vignuzzi M, Peersen OB, Denison MR. (2016). Homology-Based Identification of a Mutation in the Coronavirus RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase That Confers Resistance to Multiple Mutagens. J Virol. 2016; 90:7415–7428. doi:10.1128/jvi.00080-16
Fehr AR, Perlman S: Maier HJ, Bickerton E, Britton P (eds.). "Coronaviruses: an overview of their replication and pathogenesis” Methods in Molecular Biology. 2015, Springer. 1282; 1–23. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1
ICTV Virus Taxonomy: 2018 Release. 2018. Available online: https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/(accessed on 28 January 2019).
Chang CK, Lo SC, Wang YS, Hou MH. Recent insights into the development of therapeutics against coronavirus diseases by targeting N protein. Drug Discov Today. 2016; 21: 562–572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2015.11.015
Paules CI, Marston HD, Fauci AS: Coronavirus infections” more than just the common cold. JAMA. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.0757
Wu Z, Yang L, Ren X, He G, Zhang J, Yang J, et al: Deciphering the bat virome catalog to better understand the ecological diversity of bat viruses and the bat origin of emerging infectious diseases. ISME J. 2016; 10:609–620. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2015.138
Fan Y, Zhao K, Shi ZL, Zhou P: Bat Coranaviruses in China. Viruses. 2019; 11: 210–223; doi: 10.3390/v11030210
Drosten C, Gunther S, Preiser W, van der Werf S, Brodt HR, Becker S, Rabenau H, et al. Identification of a novel coronavirus in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2003; 348: 1967–1976. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030747
Peiris JSM, Lai ST, Poon L, et al. Coronavirus as a possible cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2003; 361: 1319–1325. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13077-2
Saif LJ. Animal coronaviruses: what can they teach us about the severe acute respiratory syndrome? Rev Sci Techno.l 2004; 23: 643–660. https://doi.org/10.20506/rst.23.2.1513
Zaki AM, van Boheemen S, Bestebroer TM, Osterhaus AD, Fouchier RA. Isolation of a novel coronavirus from a man with pneumonia in Saudi Arabia. N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 1814–1820. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1211721
Wang C, Horby PW, Hayden FG, Gao GF. A novel coronavirus outbreak of global health concern. Lancet. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30185–9.
Zhou P, Yang XL, Wang XG, Hu B, Zhang L, Zhang W, Si HR, Zhu Y, Li B, Huang CL, et al. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7.
Zhu N, Zhang D, Wang W, Li X, Yang B, Song J, Zhao X, Huang B, Shi W, Lu R, et al. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020; 382: 727–733. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017
Singhal T. A Review of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID19). Indian J Pediatr. 2020; 87: 281–286. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12098-020-03263-6
Imperial College London. Report 2. estimating the potential total number of novel coronavirus cases in Wuhan City, China. Jan 2020. https://www.imperial.ac.uk/mrcglobalinfectiousdiseaseanalysis/news--wuhan-coronavirus.
Xinhua. China's CDC detects a large number of new coronaviruses in the South China seafood market in Wuhan. Available at: https:// www.xinhuanet.com/202001/27/c_1125504355.htm. Accessed 20 Feb 2020
Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, et al. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet. 2020; 395: 497–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/S01406736(20)30183-5
Li Q, Guan X, Wu P, et al. Early transmission dynamics in Wuhan, China, of novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001316
Millet JK, Whittaker GR. Physiological and molecular triggers for SARS-CoV membrane fusion and entry into host cells. Virology. 2018; 517: 3–8. doi:10.1016/j.virol.2017.12.015
Nash TC, Buchmeier MJ. Entry of mouse hepatitis virus into cells by endosomal and nonendosomal pathways. Virology. 1997; 233: 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1997.8609
Matsuyama S, Ujike M, Morikawa S, Tashiro M, Taguchi F. Protease-mediated enhancement of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2005; 102: 12543–12547. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0503203102
Kubo H, Yamada YK, Taguchi F. Localization of neutralizing epitopes and the receptor-binding site within the aminoterminal 330 amino acids of the murine Coronavirus spike protein. J Virol. 1994; 68: 5403–5410. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.68.9.5403-5410.1994
Cheng PK, Wong DA, Tong LK, Ip SM, Lo AC, Lau CS, Yeung EY, Lim WW. Viral shedding patterns of coronavirus in patients with probable severe acute respiratory syndrome. Lancet. 2004; 363: 1699–1700. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16255-7
Simmons G, Zmora P, Gierer S, Heurich A, Pöhlmann S. Proteolytic activation of the SARS-coronavirus spike protein: cutting enzymes at the cutting edge of antiviral research. Antivir Res. 2013; 100: 605–14. doi:10.1016/j.antiviral.2013.09.028
Zhang QF, Cui JM, Huang XJ, Lin W, Tan DY, Xu JW, Zheng HY. Morphology and morphogenesis of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated virus. Acta Biochimica et Biophysica Sinica-Chinese edition 2003; 35: 587–591.
Qinfen Z, Jinming C, Xiaojun H, Huanying Z, Jicheng H, Ling F, Jingqiang Z. The life cycle of SARS coronavirus in Vero E6 cells. J Med Virol. 73: 332–337. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.20095
Zhou P, Fan H, Lan T, Yang XL, Shi WF, Zhang W, et al. Fatal swine acute diarrhoea syndrome caused by an HKU2related coronavirus of bat origin. Nature. 2018: 556: 255–258. doi: 10.1038/s41586-018-0010-9
Shi J, Wen Z, Zhong G, Yang H, et al. Susceptibility of ferrets, cats, dogs, and other domesticated animals to SARS–coronavirus 2. Science. doi:10.1126/science.abb7015
Lam TT, Shum MH, Zhu H, et al. Identifying SARS-CoV-2 related coronaviruses in Malayan pangolins. Nature. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2169-0
Guan Y, Zheng BJ, He YQ, Liu XL, Zhuang ZX, Cheung CL, Luo SW, Li PH, Zhang LJ, Guan YJ, et al. Isolation and characterization of viruses related to the SARS coronavirus from animals in southern China. Science. 2003; 302: 276– 278. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1087139
Kan B, Wang M, Jing H, Xu H, Jiang X, Yan M, Liang W, Zheng H, Wan K, Liu Q, et al. Molecular evolution analysis and geographic investigation of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-like virus in palm civets at an animal market and on farms. J Virol. 2005; 79: 11892–11900.
https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.18.11892-11900.2005
Wang M, Yan M, Xu H, Liang W, Kan B, Zheng B, Chen H, Zheng H, Xu Y, Zhang E, et al. SARS-CoV infection in a restaurant from palmcivet. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005; 11:1860–1865. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1112.041293
Memish ZA, Mishra N, Olival KJ, Fagbo SF, Kapoor V, Epstein JH, Alhakeem R, Durosinloun A, Al Asmari M, Islam A, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013; 19: 1819–1823. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1911.131172
Haagmans BL, Al Dhahiry SH, Reusken CB, Raj VS, Galiano M, Myers R, Godeke GJ, Jonges M, Farag E, Diab A, et al. Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in dromedary camels: an outbreak investigation. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014; 14: 140–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/S14733099(13)70690-X
Yin Y, Wunderink RG. MERS, SARS and other coronaviruses as causes of pneumonia. Respirology. 2017; 23: 130–137. doi:10.1111/resp.13196
Li W, Shi Z, Yu M, Ren W, Smith C, Epstein JH, Wang H, Crameri G, Hu Z, Zhang H, et al. Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses. Science. 200; 310: 676–679. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1118391
Ge XY, Li JL, Yang XL, Chmura AA, Zhu G, Epstein JH, Mazet JK, Hu B, Zhang W, Peng C, et al. Isolation and characterization of a bat SARS-like coronavirus that uses the ACE2 receptor. Nature. 2013; 503: 535–538. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12711
Yang XL, Hu B, Wang B, Wang MN, Zhang Q, Zhang W, Wu LJ, Ge XY, Zhang YZ, Daszak P, et al. Isolation and Characterization of a Novel Bat Coronavirus Closely Related to the Direct Progenitor of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. J Virol. 2015; 90: 3253–3256. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02582-15
Hu B, Zeng LP, Yang XL, Ge XY, Zhang W, Li B, Xie JZ, Shen XR, Zhang YZ, Wang N, et al. Discovery of a rich gene pool of bat SARS related coronaviruses provides new insights into the origin of SARS coronavirus. PLoS Pathog. 2017; 13:e1006698. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1006698
Sahin AR, Erdogan A, Mutlu Agaoglu P, Dineri Y, Cakirci AY, Senel ME, et al. 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID19) Outbreak: A Review of the Current Literature. EJMO. 2020; 4: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.14744/ejmo.2020.12220
Gralinski LE, Menachery VD. Return of the Coronavirus: 2019-nCoV. Viruses. 2020; 12: 135. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12020135
Seven days in medicine: 8-14 Jan 2020. BMJ. 2020; 368:m132.31948945
Chan JFW, Yuan S, Kok KH, To KKW, Chu H, Yang J, Xing F, Liu J, Yip CCY, Poon RWS, Tsoi HW. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S01406736(20)30154-9
Rapoport B. Pathophysiology of Hashimoto's thyroiditis and hypothyroidism. Annu Rev Med. 1991; 42: 91–96. doi:10.1146/annurev.me.42.020191.000515.
Duan SM, Zhao XS, Wen RF, Huang JJ, Pi GH, Zhang SX, et al. Stability of SARS coronavirus in human specimens and environment and its sensitivity to heating and UV irradiation. Biomed Environ Sci. 2003; 16: 246–255.
Greatorex JS, Digard P, Curran MD, Moynihan R, Wensley H, Wreghitt T, et al. Survival of influenza A(H1N1) on materials found in households: implications for infection control. PLoS One. 2011; 6: e27932. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0027932
Fernstrom A, Goldblatt M. Aerobiology and its role in the transmission of infectious diseases. J Pathog. 2013; 493960. doi:10.1155/2013/493960
Nikitin N, Petrova E, Trifonova E, Karpova O. Influenza virus aerosols in the air and their infectiousness. Adv Virol. 2014; 859090. doi:10.1155/2014/859090
Warnes SL, Little ZR, Keevil CW: Human Coronavirus 229E Remains Infectious on Common Touch Surface Materials. mBio. 2015; 6: e01697-01615. doi:10.1128/mBio.01697-15
Marr LC, Tang JW, Van Mullekom J, Lakdawala SS. Mechanistic insights into the effect of humidity on airborne influenza virus survival, transmission and incidence. J R Soc Interface. 2019; 16: 20180298. doi:10.1098/rsif.2018.0298
Guo YR, Cao QD, Hong ZS, Tan YY, Chen SD, Jin HJ, et al. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak - an update on the status. Mil Med Res. 2020; 7: 11. doi:10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0
Frieden TR, Lee CT. Identifying and Interrupting Superspreading Events-Implications for Control of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. Emerg Infect Dis. 2020; 26. doi:10.3201/eid2606.200495
Kampf G, Todt D, Pfaender S, Steinmann E. Persistence of coronaviruses on inanimate surfaces and its inactivation with biocidal agents. J Hosp Infect. 6 Feb 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2020.01.022
Xia S, Liu M, Wang C, et al. Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 (previously 2019-nCoV) infection by a highly potent pancoronavirus fusion inhibitor targeting its spike protein that harbors a high capacity to mediate membrane fusion. Cell Res. 2020; 30: 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41422020-0305-x
Loon SC, Teoh SC, Oon LL, Se-Thoe SY, Ling AE, Leo YS, Leong HN. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus in tears. Brit J Ophthalmol. 2004; 88: 861–863. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo.2003.035931
Rothe C, Schunk M, Sothmann P, Bretzel G, Froeschl G, Wallrauch C, Zimmer T, Thiel V, Janke C. Transmission of EJMO 7 2019-nCoV Infection from an Asymptomatic Contact in Germany, 30.01.2020 https://doi.10.1056/NEJMc2001468
Chen H, Guo J, Wang C, et al. Clinical characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women: a retrospective review of medical records. Lancet. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)303 60-3.
Chen N, Zhou M, Dong X, Qu J, Gong F, Han Y, Yu T. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: a descriptive study. Lancet. 2020a; 395: 507–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30211-7
World Health Organization. Situation reports. Available at: https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novelcoronavirus2019/ situation-reports/. Accessed 22 Feb
Wu Z, McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and Important Lessons from the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID -19) Outbreak in China: Summary of a Report of 72 314 Cases From the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA. 24 Feb 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.2648
Yam WC, Chan KH, Poon LL, Guan Y, Yuen KY, Seto WH, Peiris JS. Evaluation of reverse transcription-PCR assays for rapid diagnosis of severe acute respiratory syndrome associated with a novel coronavirus. J Clin Microbiol. 2003; 41(10): 4521–4. doi:10.1128/jcm.41.10.4521-4524.2003
Pan Y, Guan H, Zhou S, Wang Y, Li Q. et al. Initial CT findings and temporal changes in patients with the novel coronavirus pneumonia (2019-nCoV): a study of 63 patients in Wuhan, China. Eur Radiol. 2020; doi: 10.1007/s00330-020-06731-x
Cascella M, Rajnik M, Cuomo A et al. Features, Evaluation and Treatment Coronavirus (COVID-19). StatPearls Publishing, 2020.
Chu CM. Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings. Thorax. 2004; 59: 252–256. doi:10.1136/thorax.2003.012658
Zeng LK, Tao XW, YuanWH,Wang J, Liu X, Liu ZS. First case of neonate infected with novel coronavirus pneumonia in China. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi. 2020; 58: E009.
Holshue ML, DeBolt C, Lindquist S, et al. First case of 2019 novel coronavirus in the United States. N Engl J Med. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001191.
Sheahan TP, Sims AC, Leist SR, Schafer A, Won J, Brown AJ, Montgomery SA, Hogg A, Babusis D, Clarke MO, et al. Comparative therapeutic efficacy of remdesivir and combination lopinavir, ritonavir, and interferon beta against MERS-CoV. Nat Commun. 2020; 11: 222. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-13940-6
Derebail VK, Falk RJ. ANCA-Associated Vasculitis” Refining Therapy with Plasma Exchange and
Glucocorticoids. Mass Medical Soc. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe1917490
Gautret P, Lagier JC, Parola P, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020; 105949. [PMID: 32205204] doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949
Researchers find two drugs that can effectively inhibit coronavirus - CGTN.” [Online]. Available: https://news.cgtn.com/news/2020-02-04/Researchers-find-two-drugsthatcan-effectively-inhibit-coronavirus-NOFpci7NJK/ index.html. [Accessed: 28-Apr-2020].
McKay BLP. Drugmakers rush to develop vaccines against china virus the wall street journal. [cited 2020 28 January]; Available from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/drugmakersrushtodevelop-vaccines-against-china-virus-11579813026
Dong L, Hu S, Gao J. Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19),” Drug Discov Ther. 2020; 14: 58–60. doi: 10.5582/ddt.2020.01012
Mair-Jenkins J, Saavedra-Campos M, Baillie JK, Cleary P, Khaw FM, et al. The Effectiveness of Convalescent Plasma and Hyperimmune Immunoglobulin for the Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Infections of Viral Etiology: A Systematic Review and Exploratory Meta-analysis. J Infect Dis. 2014; 211: 80–90. doi:10.1093/infdis/jiu396
Koenig K. Identify-Isolate-Inform: A Modified Tool for Initial Detection and Management of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Patients in the Emergency Department. West J Emerg Med. 2015; 16: 619–624.
doi:10.5811/westjem.2015.7.27915
Tian X, Li C, Huang A, Xia S, Lu S, et al. Potent binding of 2019 novel coronavirus spike protein by a SARS coronavirusspecific human monoclonal antibody. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020; 9: 382–385. doi:10.1080/22221751.2020.1729069
Zhang L, Liu Y. Potential interventions for novel coronavirus in China: A systematic review,” J M Virol. 2020; 92: 479–490. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25707
Cheung E. China coronavirus: Hong kong researchers have already developed vaccine but need time to test it, expert reveals: South china morning post. [cited 2020 29 January]; Available from: https://www.scmp.com/news/hongkong/ health environment/article/3047956/chinacoronavirushongkong-researchers-have.
Lee LZ. Chinese scientists race to develop vaccine as coronavirus death toll jumps: South china morning post. [cited 2020 29 January]; Available from: https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/ 3047676/numbercoronavirus-cases chinadoubles- spreadrateaccelerates.
Cally L, Druce JD, Catton MG, Jans DA, Wagstaff KM. The FDA-approved Drug Ivermectin inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. Antivir Res. 2020; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2020.104787
